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Lingcod

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Lingcod
Ophiodon elongatus
At Santa Catalina Island, California
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Scorpaeniformes
Family: Hexagrammidae
Genus: Ophiodon
Species:
O. elongatus
Binomial name
Ophiodon elongatus
Girard, 1854
Range of the lingcod.

The lingcod or ling cod (Ophiodon elongatus) is neither a ling nor a cod, but is also known as known as the buffalo cod or cultus cod, or Buckethead is a fish of the greenling family Hexagrammidae. It is the only extant member of the genus Ophiodon.[1] A slightly larger, extinct species, Ophiodon ozymandias, is known from fossils from the Late Miocene of Southern California.[2]

Ophiodon elongatus is native to the North American west coast from Shumagin Islands in the Gulf of Alaska to Baja California, Mexico. It has been observed up to a size of 152 centimetres (60 in) and a weight of 59 kilograms (130 lb).[3] It is spotted in various shades of gray. The lingcod is a popular eating fish, and is thus prized by anglers. Though not closely related to either ling or cod, the name "lingcod" originated because it somewhat resembles those fish. Around 20% of lingcods have blue-green to turquoise flesh.[4]p. 298 The color, which is destroyed by cooking, may be due to biliverdin, but this has not been established beyond doubt.[5]

Appearance

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Lingcods have several variations in their appearance, including dark gray, blue, brown, or green coloring on the back, sometimes accompanying mottling or spotting on the upper back that is copper colored. The belly is typically lighter than the body[6]. Lingcod typically has a large head and mouth where the upper jaw extends posteriorly past the eyes[6]. They have 18 large and sharp teeth that are canine-like[6]. This body of a lingcod resembles a fusiform body plan, indicating their primary mode of movement is quick, short, bursts. The head of a lingcod is unscaled and has a cirrus above the eye. Lingcod’s lateral line is prominent and white while the body is covered in cycloid scales. The dorsal fin is composed of spines and rays, separated by a notch. The anal fin also contains 3 spines[6]. Lingcod do not have a swim bladder[7]. Lingcod grows relatively quickly and up to 5 feet (60 inches or 152 centimeters) or 80 pounds but has been reported to weigh 59 kilograms (130 pounds)[8].

Polymorphism of Lingcod

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About 20% of the lingcod population in the Pacific Ocean on the west coast of North America presents a blue coloration, while the other 80% presents with the brown coloration morphology. Blue lingcods have blue coloration in both the external and internal tissue[9]. In general, the effect of blue polymorphism observed in other fish species, such as other members of the Family Hexagrammidae and Family Cottidae, can be from the bile pigment biliverdin[4]. Biliverdin is a product of heme catabolism which circulates the lymph and suffuses tissues. However, this hypothesis has not been tested in lingcod. Dysfunction of the liver or gallbladder may also result in biliverdin permeating tissues[10] and biliverdin is also linked to starvation[11]. Anecdotally, blue coloration in lingcod has been thought to be caused by dietary preferences through the individual preference of the consumption of prey items that have increased levels of biliverdin in their tissue or prey items that trigger biliverdin release[12].

A study examining the relationship between parasites and lingcods from the coast of Alaska, Washington, and California, USA found that blue male lingcods carried 1.89 times more parasites brown counterparts. However, the study found that there was no difference in blue and brown female lingcod regarding parasite burden despite blue coloration being more common in females. The discrepancy in the burden of parasites between male and female lingcod may be because male vertebrates' immune systems are typically less effective than females since male sex hormones have immunocompromising properties[9].

The same study found that blue Lingcod individuals of both sexes have a lower hepatosomatic index value, which may indicate blueness is also an indication of poor body condition. The exact mechanism behind the production of blueness is not yet determined. One explanation includes that parasites may cause physiological damage to the fish, producing blueness as a result. Another possible explanation is that starvation may be the driving factor for blue coloration and parasite burden, but this factor is unmeasurable. Moreover, the study’s findings suggest that the immune system may play a role in blue coloration, but when coupled with parasitism expresses a role in the population dynamics of lingcod. Future studies are required for further determination of the cause of polymorphism of Lingcod[9].

Range & Habitat

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Ophiodon elongatus is native to the North American west coast from the Shumagin Islands in the Gulf of Alaska to Baja California, Mexico. They are found on the bottom, with most individuals occupying rocky areas at depths of 10 to 100 m (32 to 328 ft). Lingcod has been found at depths of 475 meters (1,558 feet)[13]. Tagging studies have shown lingcod is a largely nonmigratory species, with colonization and recruitment occurring in localized areas only[14]. However, Lingcod are the most abundant near British Columbia, Canada, and Washington, USA. The Lingcods within this range are composed of two stocks, whose status is maintained by NOAA Fisheries: The Northern Pacific stock and the Southern Pacific stock[15].

When lingcod are in their larvae life stage, they typically live near the surface of the ocean. At the juvenile life stage, lingcod live on sandy ocean bottoms with eelgrass or kelp beds near the shore[15]. More specifically, year 1 Lingcod (Lingcod that are equal to or under 25cm) are found in homogeneous soft sediment to avoid predation from adult Lingcod as well as wave relief areas. Meanwhile, year 2 Lingcod (Lingcod that are 25-45cm) is found usually near alternating sizes of rock substrates with varying combinations of moderate and low relief but still in generally shallow waters[16]. As Lingcod approach adulthood, they move to more rocky habitats or into seaweed, kelp, and eelgrass beds. The benefit of this habitat is food abundance. Year 3+ Lingcod (Lingcod that are equal to or greater than 50cm) are positively associated with a hard substrate such as rocky reefs and generally deeper waters as well[16]. Such a shift in habitat based on the life stages portrays Lingcod's ontogenetic shift[16].

Typically, female Lingcod will migrate seasonally to spawn but male Lingcod prefer to stay near the familiar habitat in which they were born. However, in certain cases, there have been cases of immature Lingcod migrating more than 60 miles. Females mainly go to more shallow waters to lay eggs[16]. Lingcod have a narrow home range and show territorial behaviors[17]. This behavior aids Lingcods in returning to the same reef for spawning.

Distribution and lifecycle

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Lingcod are endemic to the west coast of North America, with the center of abundance off the coast of British Columbia. They are found on the bottom, with most individuals occupying rocky areas at depths of 10 to 100 m (32 to 328 ft). Tagging studies have shown lingcod are a largely nonmigratory species, with colonization and recruitment occurring in localized areas only.[14]

Starting in October, lingcod migrate to nearshore spawning grounds. The males migrate first, and establish nest sites in strong current areas in rock crevices or on ledges. Spawning takes place between December and March, and females leave the nest site immediately after depositing eggs. Males actively defend the nest from predators until the eggs hatch in early March through late April.

The larvae are pelagic until late May or early June, when they settle to the bottom as juveniles. Initially they inhabit eelgrass beds, then move to flat, sandy areas that are not the typical habitat of older lingcod. They eventually settle in habitats of similar relief and substrate as older lingcod, but remain at shallower depths for several years.

Skeleton of a lingcod

Females and males mature at age three to five years (61–75 centimetres (24–30 in)) and two years of age (45 centimetres (18 in)), respectively. An adult male can be distinguished externally from a female by the presence of a small, conical papilla behind the anal vent. Up to age two, males and females grow at similar rates, with both reaching an average length of 45 centimetres (18 in). After age two, females grow faster than males, with the growth of males tapering off at about age eight, and females continuing to grow until about age 12 to 14. Lingcod live a maximum of about 36 years,[18] reaching a maximum size around 150 centimetres (59 in).[19] Off the coast of Alaska, many reach 70 pounds (32 kg).

Lingcod are voracious predators, feeding on nearly anything they can fit in their mouths, including invertebrates and many species of fish, such as herring (Clupea pallasii), salmon, and Pacific hake (Merluccius productus). One of their favorite foods is smaller octopuses, and they also readily devour large rockfish. Lingcod that survive the larval stages have few predators themselves, and are vulnerable mainly to marine mammals, such as sea lions and harbor seals.

Lingcod caught using swim-bait in Pacifica, CA, USA. Note regurgitation of stomach contents during retrieve, frequently reported by fishermen.

Age determination

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In 1977, Dr. Dick Beamish and Doris Chilton of the Pacific Biological Station published an article showing that cross sections of the fourth to eighth fin rays from the second dorsal fin provided a method for estimating the age of lingcod.[20][21] This method has since been validated by a mark-recapture study in which lingcod received an injection of oxytetracycline. Other methods of aging, such as those using scales and otoliths, were found to underestimate ages for older fish.

Ages are determined from fins in much the same manner as for other aging structures: sections of varying thickness are examined under a microscope, and the annuli, or rings, that are formed for each year of growth are counted and used to estimate the age. The cross sections must be made at right angles to the length of the fin ray, and it is therefore important that fins be dried flat, with the cut surface at right angles to the fin rays. In addition, the distance the section is cut from the fin ray base is important, so all fins should be collected with the bases intact.[22][23]

One problem associated with using fin rays to age older fish is the center may be resorbed, resulting in the loss of the first two annuli. It is therefore necessary to determine an average width for the first two annuli by examining the fins from juvenile fish. This measurement can then be used to estimate the position of the third annulus on older fish.

Nutrition

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Nutrition information for lingcod is as follows.[24]

Serving Size 100g

Calories

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 88 kcal

Protein

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 19.1 g
Protein calories: 82 kcal

Protein calories % : 0.7 g

Fat

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 0.7 g
Fat calories: 7 kcal

Fat calories % : 7.6%

Carbohydrate

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 0.0 g
Carbohydrate calories: 0 kcal

Carbohydrate calories % : 0.0%

Cholesterol 73.6 mg
Sodium 51.5 mg
Serving Size per 100g per 100 kcal
Omega 3 (EPA+DHA) 361 mg 413 mg
Vitamin B3 1.8 mg 2.1 mg
Vitamin B6 0.2 mg 0.2 mg
Vitamin B12 1.1 mcg 1.3 mcg
Vitamin D <43 IU <49 IU
Vitamin E 0 mg 0 mg
Calcium 6.7 mg 7.7 mg
Magnesium 25.5 mg 29.2 mg
Phosphorus 226 mg 259 mg
Potassium 470 mg 538 mg
Selenium 50 mcg 57 mcg


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  • Lighter color variation
    Lighter color variation
  • Lingcod shows its teeth
    Lingcod shows its teeth
  • Lingcod hides motionless on a reef
    Lingcod hides motionless on a reef
  • Lingcod with a small sablefish in its mouth
    Lingcod with a small sablefish in its mouth

References

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  1. ^ "World Register of Marine Species Ophiodon Girard, 1854".
  2. ^ Jordan, D.S. & J.Z. Gilbert, 1920. Fossil fishes of diatom beds of Lompoc, Stanford University. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/68104
  3. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Ophiodon elongatus". FishBase. October 2010 version.
  4. ^ a b Love, Milton S. (2011). Certainly more than you want to know about the fishes of the Pacific Coast : a postmodern experience (PDF). Santa Barbara, Calif.: Really Big Press. ISBN 978-0962872563. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  5. ^ Bland, Alastair. "Red Fish, Blue Fish: Where The Fish Flesh Rainbow Comes From". the salt. NPR. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  6. ^ a b c d "Lingcod | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife". wdfw.wa.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-08.
  7. ^ dfg.webmaster@alaska.gov. "Lingcod Species Profile, Alaska Department of Fish and Game". www.adfg.alaska.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-08.
  8. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Ophiodon elongatus". FishBase. October 2010 version.
  9. ^ a b c Wood, Chelsea L.; Leslie, Katie L.; Greene, Alanna; Lam, Laurel S.; Basnett, Bonnie; Hamilton, Scott L.; Samhouri, Jameal F. (2021-12-31). "The weaker sex: Male lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) with blue color polymorphism are more burdened by parasites than are other sex–color combinations". PLOS ONE. 16 (12): e0261202. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1661202W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261202. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8719767. PMID 34972116.
  10. ^ Rust, Michael B. (2003-01-01), Halver, John E.; Hardy, Ronald W. (eds.), "7 - Nutritional Physiology", Fish Nutrition (Third Edition), San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 367–452, ISBN 978-0-12-319652-1, retrieved 2024-11-08
  11. ^ Lee Shing Fang (1987-01-01). "Study of the heme catabolism of fish". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Comparative Biochemistry. 88 (2): 667–673. doi:10.1016/0305-0491(87)90361-0. ISSN 0305-0491.
  12. ^ Galloway, Aaron W. E.; Beaudreau, Anne H.; Thomas, Michael D.; Basnett, Bonnie L.; Lam, Laurel S.; Hamilton, Scott L.; Andrews, Kelly S.; Schram, Julie B.; Watson, Jessica; Samhouri, Jameal F. (September 2021). "Assessing prevalence and correlates of blue-colored flesh in lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) across their geographic range". Marine Biology. 168 (9): 139. Bibcode:2021MarBi.168..139G. doi:10.1007/s00227-021-03936-6. ISSN 0025-3162.
  13. ^ "CA Marine Species Portal". marinespecies.wildlife.ca.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-08.
  14. ^ a b DFO, 2001, Lingcod, DFO Science Stock Report A6-18 Archived 2005-08-18 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ a b Fisheries, NOAA (2024-09-06). "Lingcod | NOAA Fisheries". NOAA. Retrieved 2024-11-08.
  16. ^ a b c d Bassett, Megan; Lindholm, James; Garza, Corey; Kvitek, Rikk; Wilson-Vandenberg, Deb (2018-01-01). "Lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) habitat associations in California: implications for conservation and management". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 101 (1): 203–213. Bibcode:2018EnvBF.101..203B. doi:10.1007/s10641-017-0692-0. ISSN 1573-5133.
  17. ^ Matthews, Kathleen R. "A telemetric study of the home ranges and homing routes of lingcod Ophiodon elongatus on shallow rocky reefs off Vancouver Island, British Columbia." Fishery Bulletin 90.4 (1992): 784-790.
  18. ^ "ADF&G - Mark, Tag and Age Laboratory". mtalab.adfg.alaska.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-09.
  19. ^ "Lingcod" (PDF). State of Alaska Fish & Game.
  20. ^ Beamish, R.J. and D. Chilton. 1977. Age determination of lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) using dorsal fin rays and scales. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27:1305-1313.
  21. ^ Chilton, D.E. and R.J. Beamish. 1982. Age determination methods for fishes studied by the Groundfish Program at the Pacific Biological Station. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 60: 102 p.
  22. ^ Cass, A.J., and R.J. Beamish. 1983. First evidence of validity of the fin-ray method of age determination for marine fishes. N. Am. J. Fish. Man. 3: 182-188.
  23. ^ McFarlane, G.A., and J.R. King. The validity of the fin-ray method of age determination for lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus). Fish. Bull. 99: 459-464.
  24. ^ Exact Scientific Services. (2021). West Coast Groundfish Nutrient Profiles: Exact Scientific Lab Results. Commissioned by Jana Hennig. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5a3051588fd4d2db4fb25f26/t/63e40842950bac0c12f8e22b/1675888709465/0+West+Coast+Groundfish+nutrient+profiles+-+Exact+Scientific+lab+results.pdf

This article incorporates material from Fisheries and Oceans Canada. This reproduction was not done in affiliation with or with the endorsement of Fisheries and Oceans Canada.

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  • Lingcod NOAA FishWatch. Retrieved 5 November 2012.
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